Excerpt from the Book:
Publisher's Note
The material published in this Monograph is a complete reprint of the text of Chapter 1 (“Review of Ordnance Research and Development in World War II”) of a manuscript in the National Archives (Records Group Number 156, Box A746). The author was not identified on the copy I worked from, although it seems likely this manuscript was written by an officer (or historian) of the U.S. Army’s Ordnance Department, since the author obviously had access to most, if not all, Ordnance Department records.
While no date is given as to when the manuscript was originally prepared, it would seem likely that it was written not long after World War II. It was not declassified until 27 September 1958.
Although much more could obviously be written about the Ordnance Department’s research and development role in World War II, this work is certainly of immense value because of its almost exclusive use of original source documents, as well as having been written shortly after the events occurred.
Introduction
In addition to its responsibility for the procurement, supply, and maintenance of the weapons and vehicles required by the U.S. Army in World War II, the Ordnance Department also had the duty of designing and developing such weapons and vehicles.
Of necessity the research and development activities of the Ordnance Department went somewhat beyond those of designing and developing actual materiel. Development of improved gun tubes, for example, required inquiry into the properties of the steel which went into these gun tubes. Metallurgical research was also necessary in the study of armor plate for combat vehicles.
Since most of the equipment produced by the Ordnance Department contained moving parts and much of it was powered by gasoline or diesel engines, research into fuels and lubricants was imperative.
Since virtually all vehicles rolled on rubber and many other types of equipment utilized rubber components, Ordnance had a vital interest in the development of synthetic substances intended to replace natural rubber.
Its heavy requirements for explosives also forced Ordnance into an examination of the chemistry of such compounds.
While it exercised supervision over a wide range of research projects, the Ordnance Department used its own facilities primarily for the development of improved models of existing weapons and vehicles. Outside agencies, principally the National Defense Research Committee, performed, or arranged for performance of, most of the basic and applied research deemed necessary. Exceptions were military rockets and recoilless weapons evolved primarily by the Ordnance Department with the assistance of the commercial organizations which later produced them in quantity, and steel.
That Ordnance concentrated its physical resources on development rather than research is indicated by the fact that Ordnance had little to do with the three major wartime discoveries in the munitions field—the atomic bomb, radar, and VT fuze.
World War II was fought, largely, with the weapons, ammunition, and vehicles, or modifications of such materiel, with which the Army was equipped in 1940. These modifications, which permitted artillery and small arms to shoot further, faster, and with more deadly effect; permitted tanks to maneuver more swiftly, return enemy fire easier, and return more effective fire; permitted motor transport vehicles to move troops and supplies more rapidly, and assisted the Army in many other ways to become a more efficient fighting force—were the primary occupation of the Ordnance research and development organization. In addition, many new types of materiel were added to the list of standard equipment as part of the continuing effort to provide an adequate tool for any job the Army was required to perform.
On 30 June 1940, the Ordnance list of standards contained about 1,200 items (including substitute standard and limited standard items). At the end of the war more than 1,800 items were listed.
The Situation in 1940
At the beginning of the defense period, 30 June 1940, research and development in the Ordnance Department was conducted jointly by Industrial Division and Technical Staff, with the understanding that Technical Staff would confine itself to “basic research and. technical research problems of broad application. not relating directly to authorized development projects.”
Authorized development projects were within the province of Industrial Division. This division of functions in the research field was predicated on the theory that it is possible to separate basic research from applied research.
Although depot supplies of ordnance were not sufficient to arm and equip the military force mobilization planners had in mind for the future, the Ordnance Book of Standards, on 30 June 1940, listed many formidable weapons which had either been held over from World War I or developed during the peace years.
Standard artillery weapons included a variety of field guns, howitzers, special aircraft, anti‑aircraft, anti‑tank, tank, railway and seacoast artillery, and mortars.
The 155mm M1 field artillery piece was ready for immediate manufacture. Howitzers included the 75mm Pack Howitzer M1A1, the 105mm M2A1, and the 240mm M1918‑M1A1.
The standard aircraft artillery was the 20mm M1 and AN‑M2, and 37mm M4.
Standard anti‑aircraft guns of the 37mm M1A2, 3-inch M3, 90mm M1, and 105mm M3 types had proven their value to both the Ordnance Department and the Service Boards of the interested combat branches and were ready for production.
The standard anti‑tank guns were the 37mm M3 and 75mm M1897A2.
The standard tank gun was the 37mm M5. Also available for any use that might be made of them were the 8-inch Mark VI, Modification 2, railway gun, and the 8-inch Mark VI, Modification 3A2, and 16-inch Mark I seacoast rifles.
The 60mm M2 and 81mm mortars completed the list of standard artillery.
Under development were a mobile 75mm gun designed for use as either an anti‑aircraft or anti‑tank weapon, a mobile 4.7-inch anti‑aircraft gun, a 155mm howitzer of monobloc construction, an 8-inch howitzer, and a 240mm howitzer felt to be an improvement over the standard weapon. Artillery development between wars had followed loosely the recommendations of the Westervelt Board Report of May 1919.
In the small arms field a list of reliable rifles, machine guns, submachine guns, aircraft guns, and pistols gave evidence that many weapons acceptable to the Infantry Board and the Air Corps would be available as soon as production facilities could turn them out. On 30 June 1940 three rifles were standard—the caliber .30 M1 (Garand), M1903 (Springfield), and the M1918A2 (Browning Automatic).
For ground use, two Browning machine guns, the caliber .30 M1917A1 and the caliber .50 M2, were available. Other Browning machine guns, the caliber .30 M1919A4, and caliber .30 M2, were deemed suitable for use in aircraft.
The Thompson caliber .45 M1928A1 submachine gun, a military adaptation of the “Tommy” gun (which figured in many gangland killings) was also standard.
The standard sidearm was the caliber .45 M1911A1 automatic pistol.
Although active development of the caliber .30 carbine did not begin until September 1940, this weapon had been under discussion since March 1938, at which time the Chief of Infantry had suggested development.
To this, and subsequent suggestions, the Ordnance Department replied that the ammunition supply problems engendered by development of such a weapon would outweigh its advantages. Development, however, was ordered by the Adjutant General in August 1940.
None of the rocket weapons, such as the “Bazooka,” or recoilless rifles were yet under consideration.
Only a handful of combat vehicles had been standardized by 30 June 1940, although several were in various stages of development. At that time the Light Tank M2A4, weighing 12 tons and mounting a 37mm gun and four caliber .30 machine guns, was ready for production as was the Medium Tank M2A1 which weighed 20 tons and also mounted a 37mm gun and carried eight machine guns of caliber .30.
Also standard were Combat Cars Ml and M2 (re‑designated Light Tanks, M1A2 and M1A1 in July and August 1940 and declared obsolete in 1942) and Scout Car M3A1.
The most important development under way in June 1940 was the modification of the standard medium tank by the addition of armor plate and a 75mm gun. The resulting tank was later standardized as the M3 (“General Grant,” with gun in the right sponson) and the M4 (“General Sherman,” with gun in turret).
The meeting of the Ordnance Committee which approved development of a more powerful medium tank also approved work on a 50 ton heavy tank and a 75mm Gun Motor Carriage.
The Half‑Track Car T14 was in the final stages of development and was standardized as the M2 in the late summer of 1940.
Steps were being taken, too, to increase the weight of armor carried by the standard light tank.
Other developmental projects nearing completion at this time were those with respect to vehicles standardized in September and October 1940 as Half‑Track Personnel Carrier M3 and 81mm Mortar Carrier M4.
Since a gun cannot be effectively used unless there is ammunition for it, standard or experimental ammunition was available for all weapons standard on 30 June 1940.
In addition, a wide variety of reliable mechanical time fuzes, as well as other fuzes, were ready for manufacture.
Aircraft bombs ranging in size up to 2,000 pounds were standard.
Six types of cannon powder, developed by DuPont, Hercules, and Picatinny Arsenal, and three types of high explosives—tetryl, TNT, and Explosive D (Ammonium Picrate)—were standard for use in artillery ammunition. A nitrocellulose blend was the standard propellant for rifle and machine gun ammunition.
Development was proceeding in connection with ammunition for experimental weapons, while attempts were also being made to develop more efficient ammunition for standard materiel.
Also under development were chemical bombs of 100 pound size and incendiary bombs of 4, 40, and 100 pound sizes. Development in this field was later assumed by the Chemical Warfare Service.
An anti‑tank mine was in the late stages of development.
Fire control equipment available in June 1940 was apparently adequate for the direction of direct or indirect fire upon stationary targets, but required intensive development before it became suitable for use against aircraft or moving ground vehicles.
Motor transport vehicles were the responsibility of the Quartermaster Corps until August 1942. The Ordnance Department, therefore, was not concerned with the development or standardization of these vehicles during the defense period.